PROTON-NEUTRON FORCE
By Prof. L. Kaliambos ( Natural Philosopher in New Energy) February 24, 2015 After my published paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" (2003), based on the discovered quarks by Gell-Mann and Zweig, today it is well known that the new structure of protons and neutrons is given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons Note that my paper of 2003 was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the differential equations of the charge distributions in nucleons, which led to my discovery of the nuclear force and structure. Surprisingly when I showed that considerable charge distributions in nucleons due to the 9 extra charged quarks in proton and to 12 extra charged quarks in neutron interact electromagnetically with strong forces of short range for the correct nuclear structure many physicists influenced by the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) abandoned the conference hall, although the correct nuclear structure of the proton-neutron force is based on the well-established laws of Coulomb and Ampere. The proton is a subatomic particle, (symbol p ). Historically the word proton (Greek "first") was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Rutherford in 1920. At that time it was believed that proton has a charge +1e = 1.6/1019 C . It has a mass Mp = 1.6726/1027 Kg = 938.272 MeV/c2 and an intrinsic spin I = ½ . Its intrinsic magnetic moment is gp = 2.793 (Sanders 1957). On the other hand neutron ( n ) was discovered by Chadwick in 1932 . He gave the name “neutron” because it was believed that it has no charge. Its mass Mn = 1.6749/1027 Kg = 939.5654 MeV/c2, is slightly greater than that of the proton; its spin is also ½. Under this condition for the proton-neutron interaction in 1932 Heisenberg proposed a fallacious theory called Theory of the Exchange Force and later Yukawa (1935) based on the Heisenberg wrong theory proposed a similar wrong theory called Meson Theory. Surprisingly later though it was believed that the neutron has no charge it was discovered that the neutron does have a negative magnetic moment gn = -1.913 (Cohen 1956). It may seem strange that an uncharged object has a magnetic moment. We should bear in mind, however, that even in fundamental physics the absence of charge means only that the integral of the charge distribution vanishes. For example, a spinning oblate spheroid or a spinning disk that has a negative charge on its circular periphery and an equal positive charge at its center will provide a negative magnetic moment with zero net charge. Under this condition later (1964) Gell-Mann in his quark theory proposed that the proton consists of two positive quarks (2u = +4e/3 ) and one negative quark (1d = -1e/3 ) which give the total charge (+4e/3 -1e/3) = +1e . Whereas the neutron should consist of two negative quarks ( 2d = -2e/3 ) and one positive quark 1u = +2e/3) giving zero net charge. However the experiments showed that the three hypothetical proton quarks of the scheme (uud) contribute only about 1% of the proton’s mass. Especially I discovered that the mass of 1u = 2.40016 MeV/c2 and the mass of 1d = 3.69349 MeV/c2 . So we get uud = 4.80032 + 3.69349 = 8.49381 MeV/c2. That is 8.49381/938.272 = 0.0090526 = 1 %. Similarly in the case of neutron we get ddu = 7.38698 + 2.40016 = 9.78714. That is 9.78714/ 939.5654 = 0.0104 = 1% In fact, I discovered that protons (p) and neutrons (n) have 288 quarks given by the following schemes p = [ 93(dud) + 4u +5d] = 288 quarks n = [ 92(dud) + 4u +8d ] = 288 quarks Here the free neutron is unstable because the rearrangement of charged quarks in neutron gives the quarks of stable proton under the well known beta decay neutron = proton + electron + antineutrino Particularly the three extra down quarks of neutron turn to a stable (dud) quark triad under the reaction d = u + electron + antineutrino According to the charge conservation we also see that (-e/3 = +2e/3 = -3e/3 + 0 ) In a manner of speaking beta decay is more nearly like the deexcitation of an excited atomic state in which a dipolar photon is emitted as the atom drops into a lower energy state. In other words there is no difference between photon emission and the beta decay. The interaction between the nucleus and atomic electrons that results in bound atomic states and the creation of dipolar photon during atomic transitions is the electromagnetic interaction. In the same way the rearrangement of charged quarks in neutron gives a proton of positive charge, an electron of negative charge, and an antineutrino which has negative charge along the periphery and positive charge at the center. This discovery invalidates the wrong theory of weak interaction proposed in 1968 by Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg. ( See my NEUTRINO NATURE DISCOVERY). Moreover we will see that the neutron of equal opposite charges interacts electromagnetically with the charge distributions of proton for rejecting the wrong nuclear theories of the so-called Strong Nuclear Force. It is indeed unfortunate that today many physicists influenced by Einstein’s invalid relativity and the wrong theories of weak and strong interactions continue to believe in the Wrong Standard Model of particle physics. According to this model the proton is composed of three valence quarks: two up quarks and one down quark. Also the neutron is composed of three valence quarks: two down quarks and one up quark. They also believe incorrectly that the so-called rest masses of the quarks is due to the kinetic energy of the quarks and to the energy of the fallacious gluon fields that should bind the quarks together with strange color forces. ( See my NEW ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS). Historically after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) Heisenberg in the same year tried to explain the nuclear force by introducing the wrong hypothesis of exchanging forces between electrons without any success. In the same way Yukawa (1935) introduced the theory of mesons, because he believed that the proton and the neutron are attracted by an unknown strong force of short range mediated by mesons like the electromagnetic forces of long range, which were thought to be mediated by the fallacious self propagating fields. Note that this idea retarded the progress of physics. For example after the experiment of French and Tessman (1963) who showed experimentally that Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (displacement current) involves misconceptions the electric field E = Fe/q (defined as a force per unit charge) cannot be the force carrier of the same electric force, since the Quantum Entanglement (1935) showed that the well-established laws of gravity and electromagnetism involve forces acting at a distance. Nevertheless, Feynman (1950) in his theory of Quantum Electrodynamics under Einstein’s wrong idea that a photon is a massless particle suggested incorrectly that the electromagnetic forces are mediated by the quantum of electromagnetic fields (photon). In general all experiments of orbiting electrons in atoms showed that a photon is generated as a mass carrier after the charge-charge interaction of an electron with the nucleus. Similarly the gravitational field Fg /m of a gravitational force Fg cannot be the force carrier of the same force. Consequently the hypothetical gravitons of the standard model and Einstein’s gravitational waves have not been discovered at CERN, since they are based on false concepts, which violate the fundamental laws of interaction. (See my article “CONFUSING CERN RESULTS AND IDEAS ”). On the other hand in 1964 Gell-Mann after a taxonomy of particles suggested that both protons (p) and neutrons (n) consist of (uud) quarks and (dud) quarks respectively having fractional charges as u = +2e/3 and d = -e/3. That is, uud = +e and dud = 0. Of course such structures imply small charge distributions as p = (+Q = +4e/3, and –q = -e/3) . Whereas n = (+Q = +2e/3, and -Q = -2e/3) which cannot lead to the nuclear structure. Actually, if we apply the fundamental charge-charge interaction of the well-established laws of electromagnetism on such small charge distributions, it would be impossible for us to get the simplest p-n structure of deuterium (D). Meanwhile in 1933, Stern measured the magnetic moment of the proton to be 2.79 μN and in 1940 F. Bloch measured the neutron magnetic moment to be -1.91 μN. Such results deviate significantly from the predictions of Dirac’s theory and invalidate both Yukawa’s model and the simple quark model of Gell-Mann because a careful analysis of them provides considerable charge distributions due to a large number of quarks able to give the nuclear binding and structure by applying the well-established and fundamental laws of charge-charge interactions involving forces acting at a distance. In 2002 I presented my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism” at the 12th Symposium of the Hellenic Nuclear Physics Society. In that paper I describe the charge distributions of protons and neutrons respectively by a careful analysis of the magnetic moments of nucleons and the deep inelastic scattering experiments. For example for p the magnetic moment μ is given by μ/S = 2.793 e/M where S is the spin of proton, e the net elementary charge of proton and M the mass of proton. Here we see that the above experimental relation cannot be consistent with the simple quark model of Gell-Mann even in case in which the charge +Q = +4e/3 is along the periphery and the charge -q = -e/3 is in the center (deep inelastic scattering experiment). Clearly applying the electromagnetic laws for μ, and the laws of a rotating oblate spheroid (like the proton) we may write for μ and for the spin S (angular momentum) respectively as μ = iπR2 = QνπR2 and S = t MωR2 = tM 2πνR2 where t is a factor between a rotating sphere and a disc. That is 0.4 < t < 0.5. Therefore μ /S = Q/2t = 2.793 e. That is for t = 0.47742 (oblate spheroid) we get for the proton a charge along the periphery as +Q =+8e/3 = 4u and in the center we get -q = -5e/3 = 5d. In the same way for the neutron we get -Q = -8e/3 = 8d along the periphery, and +Q = +8e/3 = 4u in the center. Surprisingly applications of electromagnetic laws on such experimental charge distributions which give for proton extra (4u,5d) quarks and for the neutron extra (8d,4u) quarks lead exactly to the simplest nuclear binding (-2.2246 MeV) of the deuterium. Moreover such extra quarks led to the discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons. As a result the proton has 93 (dud) neutral quark triads. Among them there are 4u charged quarks distributed along the periphery and 5d charged quarks limited in the center. Whereas the neutron has 92 (dud) neutral quark triads and among them are distributed 8d charged quarks along the periphery and 4u charged quarks limited in the center. Indeed after a careful analysis of these two equations and solving for the masses of the two quarks up and down we found the masses of down (Md) and of up quark (Mu) as Md = 3.69349 MeV/c2 and Mu = 2.40016 MeV/c2 which give not only the masses Mn = 939.5654 MeV/c2 and Mp = 938.272 MeV/c2 of neutron and proton respectively but also the difference Mn - Mp = 1.293 MeV/c2 which is exactly equal to Md - Mu. However in "Down quark - WIKIPEDIA" and in "Up quark-WIKIPEDIA" one can see wrong values of Md and Mu because the difference Md - Mu is greater than the correct value Mn - Mp = 1.293 MeV/c2. Ever since the simple quark model was proposed extensive searches have been made for evidence of the existence of quarks as free particles. As yet there has been no decisive evidence for the existence of free quarks. Under this condition the universe started off with a primordial gravity of long range on neutral quark triads (dud) exerting electric forces of short range. Thus at very short distances (shorter than the size of neutrons in neutron stars) the gravity during the Big Bang was very powerful for producing a very hot universe. (See my OUR EARLY UNIVERSE) . On the other hand there have been many good agreements between the deductions of the quark model and various experimental data to strongly support the existence of quarks. Whereas the experiments showed that the mass of the proposed uud and dud quarks in each nucleon is only 1% of the total mass of the nucleon. However despite the enormous success that the up (u) and down quark (d) have fractional charges of the well-established electromagnetic laws, Gell-Mann in 1973 like the wrong theories of Heisenberg (1932) Fermi (1934) Yukawa (1935), and Glashow (1968) abandoned the fundamental charges of basic laws and developed the wrong Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) by introducing incorrectly massless gluons as force carriers with strange color forces under the invalid mass-energy conservation of the invalid special relativity. Note that the hypothetical energy of gluons cannot give the mass of nucleons, since energy does not turn to mass. Also massless particles cannot exist, because energy without mass cannot exist. (See my WRONG AND CORRECT EINSTEIN ). On the other hand despite the fact that the quarks have fractional charges able to interact by using not wrong postulations but by applying the fundamental laws of electromagnetism with forces of short range like the dipole-dipole interactions, Gell-Mann for explaining the short-ranged forces of quarks did not follow the wrong theories of Yukawa and Glashow but the false theory of Feynman (1950), who introduced (massless photons) for interpreting the long-range forces. Moreover following Einstein’s the invalid mass-energy conservation Gell-Mann believed that the energy of gluons is transformed into the mass of the proton, since his quark triads have only 1 % of the total mass of a nucleon. Of course such theories are overthrown by our discovery of matter - photon interaction ΔΕ/ΔΜ = hν/m = c2 according to which the orbiting electrons in atoms invalidate dramatically the special relativity, since the moving electrons have a variable mass M less than the inertial constant mass Mo. Also all photons have a mass m since the photon energy hν without mass cannot exist. Nevertheless in “proton-WIKIPEDIA” one can see the confusing description of the proton based on two different models like the simple quark hypothesis with the uud quarks mediated by gluons and the valence quark model with the uud quarks characterized as valence quarks in a sea of virtual quark-antiquark pairs generated by the gluons. In “Gluon-WIKIPEDIA” one reads wrong experimental observations of gluons. In fact, individual events in the TASSO experiments had nothing to do with the establishment of a gluon signal. in Google Letters (page 2) CERN Courier. CONCLUSIONS According to the new structure of protons and neutrons based on the well-established electromagnetic laws and on the experiments of the magnetic moments and of the deep inelastic scattering both the proton and neutron have extra charged quarks among 288 quarks in nucleons which give the binding energy of 2.2246 MeV. ( See my DEUTERON STRUCTURE AND BINDING). This is the correct strong nuclear force of short range due to electromagnetic interaction of 9 extra charged quarks in proton and 12 extra charged quarks in neutron. Like the model of Bohr this electromagnetic energy turns into the energy hν = 2.2246 MeV of the generated photon. During this electromagnetic interaction we observe also a mass defect ΔΜ = 2.2246 MeV/c2 which turns into the photon mass m =hν/c2 in accordance with my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS given by ΔΕ/ΔΜ = hν/m = c2 In other words the correct nuclear force of the electromagnetic interaction of proton and neutron based on the well-established natural laws rejects not only the wrong nuclear theories but also the invalid Mass-Energy Conservation of Einstein’s invalid relativity.Category:Fundamental physics concepts